Imperial China:

What is the Mandate of Heaven?

The Mandate of Heaven was both a political and social philosophy that guided the dynasties of China until the end of the imperial empire in 1912 C.E (Halsall). The mandate was used to gage the success and failure of monarchs and states. Because the Chinese believed that the right to rule was passed down to the emperor from heaven, when a dynasty fell, China's sages believed it was because the monarch had lost the moral right to rule which was given by Heaven alone (Halsall). The Chinese did not believe that "heaven" was the place where a personal god ruled on high; instead, the Chinese believed that the right to rule was given by a "cosmic all-pervading power" (Halsall). According to the Shu Jing, the classical book of Chinese history, "Most historians today agree that the theory the Mandate of Heaven was an invention of the Zhou to justify their overthrow of the Shang. The king, after all, was the father of his people, and paternal authority was the basic cement of Chinese society from earliest times. Rebellion against a father, therefore, needed extraordinary justification" (Halsall).  The Mandate of Heaven was used to justify imperial rule.

Source:  Halsall, Paul. "The Mandate of Heaven: Selections from the Shu Jing." Chinese Cultural Studies. 2 June 1999. Brooklyn College. 2 January 2008. <http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/shu-jing.html>.

Edited by: msward

 

 

 

What was the Xia dynasty?

The Xia Dynasty, originally thought to be a myth told by the Chinese as part of their history, may have been the first prehistoric dynasty existing from 2100B.C.E. to 1800B.C.E. (Lorents). No evidence was found proving the dynasty real until 1959, when an excavation at Erlitous, in the city of Yanshi, revealed what may have been the ruins of the Xia Dynasty (Lorents). Although archeological evidence was found, the existence of the Xia Dynasty is not universally accepted (Lorents). Urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs were uncovered which also serve as evidence (The Xia Dynasty). According to oral history the agrarian people who lived there during this time created bronze weapons and pottery and practiced elaborate rituals to confirm power. Traditionally, it is said that the first ruler of the Xia dynasty was Yu the Great and the last ruler, nearly fourteen generations later was Jie (The Xia Dynasty). Conflicts and social contradictions grew sharper nearing the end of the Xia Dynasty (The Xia Dynasty). Jie abused his power and selfishly exploited the resources to built palaces and pavilions for himself (Xia Dynasty). Many people fled the dynasty to escape his rule and the Xia Dynasty quickly declined (Xia Dynasty). When the dynasty became weak, Shang Tang took the opportunity and overthrew the Xia Dynasty and created what is known as the Shang Dynasty (Xia Dynasty).

Source: Lorents, Melissa. “Xia Dynasty.”Minnesota State University Mankato. 12 Dec. 2007. 2 Jan. 2008 <http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/index.shtml>. “The Xia Dynasty.” History Chinavoc.com. 2007. Chinavoc. 2 Jan. 2008 <http://www.chinavoc.com/history/xia.htm> .

Edited by: Kellie V.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Leah K.

Add your image here

What was the Shang dynasty?

 

The Shang dynasty, which would later become the yin dynasty controlled China from 1700 to 1027 B.C.  This dynasty was the second dynasty to be formed, and controlled the north east region of present day China. The foundation of the Shang dynasty was formatted around the beliefs of Agriculture. This fundamental belief that the Shang carried was responsible for much of the development throughout the dynasty.  For example they created a sufficient writing system, and a bronze metallurgy . The ruling process of the Shang Dynasty was unorganized. Throughout the 650 years over 50 people had control, and the capitol was moved from and two 6 different places.  In these ever changing capitol cities, the courts and overall life flourished leading to a wide spread cultural explosion. For the main bulk of the ruling, several kings at a time ruled from the north.  Although these kings lead a strong and successful dynasty, they fought many battles with many neighboring settlements, which led to much chaos throughout the dynasty.  When the capitol was moved for a final time, The Shang Dynasty changed its name to the Yin Dynasty.  In the 1700 the last Shang ruler was overthrown by the Zhou tribe.

Source: http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/ancient1.html#shang The Ancient Dynasties January 2, 2008.

Edited by: Tyler K.

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by Lindsay M.

Add your image here

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Carolyn C.

Add your image here

 

What was the Western Zhou dynasty?

In ancient China, the Zhou was a tribe that lived west of the Shang Kingdom. The tribe remained nomadic until they settled in the Wei River Valley. In 1040 B.C., the Zhou defeated the Shang and the Zhou Dynasty was established. They brought with them their religious practices, including the cult of Heaven. They worshipped the sun and the stars and many of the Shang gods were incorporated into their religion. The Zhous were greatly influenced by Shang culture, but the new Zhou government caused fueds between the two peoples. As a result, the capital was divided into two parts.       The dynasty is divided into two sub-periods, the Eastern and Western. The Western Zhou Dynasty was the first sub-period, which lasted from 1040 B.C., when the dynasty was established, until about 771 B.C. The end of the Western Zhou Dynasty came about when barbarians invaded from the north and pushed the Zhous east, resulting in the creation of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.

Source: http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/ancient_china/zhou.html

Edited by: Mike R.

Add your image here

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Molly M.

Add your image here

What was the Sui dynasty? 

The Sui dynasty an economic one that saw the rich people to poor people gap reduced enhanced agricultural products and expanded to Great Wall of China to an even greater length. Founded by the ruler Emperor Wen the Sui dynasty held its capital in Chan’ an, known today as Xi’an. This dynasty was made with the reunification of southern and northern china and the building of the Grand Canal. The religious teachings of Buddhism began to spread around India and work its way into China. The kingdoms quick downfall was partially because of the war with one of the three kingdoms of Korea. The war was a disaster for the Chinese resulting in 4 failing campaigns. They were defeated by the leader Eulji Mundeok of Goruryeo. In one instance 305,000 soldiers were sent to battle and only 2,700 returned home after much suffering on the way. The resentment for the emperor of china continued to increase with more and more failed wars. With this, the rebuilding of the great wall strained the economy and this also drained china and its people of much prosperity. All of this combined failure of the goverment eventually leads to the downfall of the Sui dynasty.

Source: "Sui Dynasty." Sui. Dynasties of classical and Imperial China. 3 Jan 2008 <http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/classical_imperial_china/sui.html>.   "Sui Dynasty." Wikipedia. wikipedia. 3 Jan 2008 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_Synasty>   "Sui Dynasty." TravelChinaGuide. TravelChinaGuide.com. 3 Jan 2008 <http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/sui/>.

Edited by: TJ P.

Add your image here

 

 

China was reunified in A.D. 589 by the short-lived Sui dynasty (A.D. 581-617) (Poon). The Sui dynasty's early downfall was due to the government's oppresing demands on the people, who had to pay taxes and be put through tedious labor (Poon). These resources were overstrained in the completion of the Grand Canal --a monumental engineering feat--and in the undertaking of other construction projects, including the reconstruction of the Great Wall (Poon). Weakened by costly and disastrous military campaigns against Korea in the early seventh century, the dynasty later decayed through a sequence of popular revolts, unpatriotic acts, and assassination (Poon). The dynasty only last approximatly 36 years.

Source: Poon, Leon "The Imperial Era: II" The Restoration of Empire. 3 January 2008 <http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial2.html#sui>.

Edited by: Dave O.

 

 

What was the Tang dynasty?

The Tang dynasty is regarded by historians to be one of the highest points in Chinese civilization equal, or even superior, to the Han period.  The Vast territory was also the golden age of literature and art.  The Tang Dynasty’s mark would be left on Chinese traditional culture permanently.  Great inventions such as Block printing which in turn made the written word available to vastly greater audiences. The Tang Dynasty had established a government system which was heavily supported by a large class of Confucian literati selected through civil service. This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talents into government. But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers was the imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences. Economic instability and military defeat in 751 by Arabs at Talas, in Central Asia, marked the beginning of five centuries of steady military decline for the Chinese empire. Misrule, court intrigues, economic exploitation, and popular rebellions weakened the empire, making it possible for northern invaders to terminate the dynasty in 907.

Source: http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial2.html#tang   http://www.chinahighlights.com/image/map/ancient/tang-dynasty-map1.gif

Edited by: Dylan M.

 

 

 

The Tang Dynasty (618-907), whose capital of Chang’an is the most populous city in the world at the time, is said by historians to be the greatest point in Chinese civilization. The Tang Dynasty territory was gained by early leader’s military campaigns and was even greater than that of the Han period. During this period, there was creativity demonstrated in many fields. Buddhism, which is now a permanent part of Chinese culture, flourished, as well as block printing and art. A government selected through civil service examinations was perfected during the Tang period, which drew the best competitors to government. Even though the Tang Dynasty was very successful, by the middle of the eighth century A.D., its power had declined. "Domestic economic instability and military defeat in 751 by Arabs at Talas, in Central Asia, marked the beginning of five centuries of steady military decline for the Chinese empire" (Poon). Over the next half century China split up into five northern dynasties and ten southern kingdoms.

Source: Poon, Leon. "The Imperial Era: II." History of China 3 Jan 2008 <http://www.chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial2.html#restoration>.

Edited by: Lauren E.

 

 

The Tang Dynasty was from 618 A.D. to 907 A.D.  Its capital was in Chang’an, and it had a high point in Chinese civilization and it was greater than the Han.  Having great relations with India and the Middle East, the empire had a flow of creativity in many fields (Poon).  During the Tang period, Buddhism was a popular religion for India, and Black Printing was invented making it easy for people to write about the world.  It was also the period of the golden age and art (Poon). “A government system supported by a large class of Confucian literati selected through civil service examinations was perfected under Tang rule. This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talents into government” (Poon).  By the middle of the eighth century A.D. the tang period had moved.  The military defeat by Arabs, made the decline for military of the Chinese empire.  The movement of the decline made it easy for northern invaders to “terminate the dynasty” (Poon).  By 960 a new power, Song,  had taken over the tang Dynasty.

Source:  Poon, Leon. “The Imperial Era:  II.”  9 January 2007.  University of Maryland.  3 January 2008.  http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial2.html#tang.

Edited by: Lydia H.

 

What was the Song dynasty?

The Song dynasty controlled China from 960 A.D to 1279A.D The Song dynasty was one of the last dynasties to be set up and ruled eastern china.  The Song dynasty is split into two phases, the Northern Song (960-1127) and the Southern Song (1127-1279).  The split was caused by nomadic invaders, who set up the Jin dynasty in the north.  The Song dynasty tried to improve on ideals brought into circulation in previous dynasties and centuries.  They also improved commerce and were the first people to have a paper currency system.

Source:

Edited by: Jack H.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Becca P.

Add your image here

 

What was the Yuan dynasty?

The Mongols ruled the Yuan Dynasty in China from 1279 to 1368 A.D.  They conquered China due to their superior military capabilities with Genghis Khan as their leader.  It was his grandson Kublai Khan, however, who became the emperor and founder of the Yuan Dynasty.  Since the Mongols were very different from the Chinese, ruling became extremely difficult.  They spoke different languages, dressed differently, and had different customs.  These differenced were impossible to overcome.  What made it even more difficult to rule was the fact that the government had no Chinese people.  The Mongols, along with other foreigners, held all of the positions.  This gap between the cultures resulted in lighter government and less severe punishments.  The Chinese nobility were also more educated than the Mongols, but they refused to teach at government schools.  Instead, they started private schools.  Even thought the Chinese nobles weren’t allowed to work in the government, they could pursue art and literature.  The educated wrote librettos for operas, which was a form of entertainment for the emperors.  However, most of these operas have been destroyed.  Soon, China’s economy began to deplete due to excessive trade and spending.  Canals were being built which required the peasants to supply more tax money and leave their homes.  Campaigns against the Japanese were also launched causing ships to be destroyed.  External trade was also made difficult for the Chinese because they couldn’t speak any other language.  Foreign merchants, however, were able to trade free of taxes and restrictions.  At the founding of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols had on of the strongest military force in the world.  The duties that came with governing their new lands, though, caused their military training to reduce.  They became so weak that uprisings began.  One leader of an uprising, Chu, united the nobility and other groups and overthrew the dynasty.  The exclusive use of foreigners in all government positions and the impoverishment of the country also led to the downfall of the Yuan Dynasty.

Source:

Edited by: Julia M.

 

 

Kublai Khan, a grandson of the infamous Genghis Khan, who reigned for 15 years, was the first alien empire ever to rule all of China, led the Yuan Dynasty. The vast empire spanned across north China, Korea, Muslim Kingdoms of central Asia, and later conquered the southern Song dynasty or empire. Despite the fact it was a Mongol-led empire, the Mongols themselves did not govern it in person. Instead, they ruled through Chinese Han bureaucrats, in order to govern china through traditional institutions. This led to the discrimination of Hans. The Yuan dynasty developed a rich cultural diversity in China. This newfound diversity led to the development of drama and novels as well as increasing the use of written vernacular. “The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange” (Chinavoc.com). Western instruments were brought in to improve Chinese music. Religions spread like mad throughout the empire. “Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography and geography, and scientific education. Certain key Chinese innovations, such as printing techniques, porcelain production, playing cards, and medical literature, were introduced in Europe, while the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China (Chinavoc.com).” Public works like artificial ponds and hills were formed, communications improved, granaries were built to prevent famine, new scientific and architectural improvements such as hydraulic engineering. Sorghum and other foreign crops and products were introduced.

Source: http://www.chinavoc.com/history/yuan.htm

Edited by: Alex D.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Megan S.

Add your image here

 

What was the Ming dynasty?

Having been founded by a peasant who was known as Hongwu Emperor, the Ming Dynasty lasted from 1368-1644 A.D. Hongwu led the revolt against the Mongols and the Yuan Dynasty (Ming Dynasty). He also moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing.  Hongwu, having been a peasant, created laws that improved peasant life. He kept the land taxes low and made sure that the granaries were kept stocked to guard against famine. He also maintained dikes (waterways, dams, etc.) on the Yellow and Yangtze River. Hongwu did not push trade forward, but rather encouraged the creation of self-supporting communities. In a typical Confucian viewpoint, he felt that agriculture should be the country's source of wealth and that trade was low (Ming Dynasty). Hongwu discarded the belief that military was inferior and made a militant class that was ranked higher than any civil servant. Having this militant class was important because the threat of the Mongols, even having defeated them before, was still high. Culture flourished under the Ming Dynasty. Novels were developed from the writings of Chinese story tellers, so they were written in everyday language rather than the language of nobility. These novels were separated into chapters, where the storyteller was able to collect money (Ming Dynasty). Some of the best of these novels are still often read even today. Wood-cut and block-printing of art was also popular at this time. Multicolored porcelain also became the normal form of the manufacturing of art. Dictionaries were written and the one with the most influence on the future was written in 1615 A.D. This dictionary reduced the Chinese characters to 214 rather than 540 plus signs of dictionaries before (Ming Dynasty). Another accomplishment of the Ming Dynasty was the Great Wall of China. Although the wall had been built by pervious dynasties, most of the wall seen today was either built or repaired during the Ming Dynasty. A flaw in the Ming Dynasty was their money issues. Money issues had started been present since the beginning of the dynasty when inflation occurred. Hongwu, not understanding inflation, had given out so much paper money to people as rewards that by 1425 the currency had been 1/70 its original value (Ming Dynasty). This led to the government to go back to copper coins, but because the government had not produced enough, counterfeiting had occurred. The provinces were told to mint their own coins, but this led to adding lead to the coins which depleted the coins’ value. Although trade was looked down upon, China established sea routes that were used for trade between Japan and South Asia. China’s naval abilities were far better than any other country, as they set up expeditions to the coasts of East Africa. The downfall of the Ming Dynasty occurred because of internal power struggles. Weak leaders were over thrown, and children who had no control over the empire were placed into power. The Qing dynasty started when Manchu attacked and defeated Chinese cities that existed in Manchuria in 1644 (Ming Dynasty).

Source: “Ming dynasty.”  Dynasties of Later Imperial China.  Minnesota State University.  3 January 2008.  http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/later_imperial_china/ming.html

Edited by: Lanica A.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: James W.

Add your image here

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Seth D.

Add your image here

 

What was the Qing dynasty?

The Manchu were "semi-nomadic" native people of Manchuria who conquered China and created the Qing (pronounced "ching") dynasty in 1644 A.D. The Manchu were foreigners and this was the second time in Chinese history that China had been ruled by foreigners (the first time was when the Mongols took over and created the Yuan dynasty). When the Manchu claimed power in China, the Ming dynasty had been disintegrating, and the form of government was kept the same from the Ming dynasty with only a few alterations. Manchu rule in the Qing dynasty was successful--the first three rulers of the dynasty brought the most prosperity. They were the Kangxi Emperor (1662-1722 A.D.), the Yongzheng Emperor (1722-1736 A.D.), and the Qianlong Emperor (1736-1796 A.D.). These three rulers greatly accepted Chinese culture and did not impose much of their own culture, which helped bring the reign of each emperor to be successful. The Qing dynasty ended in 1911 A.D.

Source: "Qing Dynasty." China. 2 Jan. 2008<http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/later_imperial_china/qing.html "Study Sheet #12: The Qing Dynasty." Art History 370. 2 Jan. 2008http://www.wisc.edu/arth/ah370/ah370s12.html Hearn, Maxwell K. "The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911):Painting." Timeline of Art History. Oct. 2003. 2 Jan. 2008. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2 Jan. 2008 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qing_1/hd_qing_1.htm.

Edited by: Amy P.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Wyndham G.

Add your image here

 

Philosophies:

What are the basic beliefs of Confucianism?

Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system developed by the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius (also known as Kong Fu Zi.) Confucianism urges people to uphold the traditions and customs of the past. It stresses virtues, or li, such as respect, loyalty, honesty, hard work, politeness, and generosity. Confucius believed that if these virtues were followed, society would exist in harmony.  He also believed that relationships and respect played a large role in social harmony. Filial piety is ranked among the greatest of virtues, and it entails that a child should repay kindness and respect to his/her parents, elders, and ancestors. The following five relationships extend from this virtue and are viewed as the “code of conduct” of Confucianism: 1) ruler and subject; 2) parent and child; 3) husband and wife; 4) elder sibling and younger sibling; and 5) friend and friend. With the exception of the fifth relationship, there is always one member who is superior to the other; the ruler is superior to the subject, the parent to the child, etc. Each pair has specific duties and responsibilities to one another, although the superior is entitled more respect than the lesser of the two. However, the superior is responsible for the lesser’s behavior; if a child behaves poorly, the parent is blamed. In contrast, both members of the fifth relationships are considered equal to one another and must respect and aid one another equally.

Source:<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism>  and notes on Confucianism from Mr. Cobb's class

Edited by: Esther C.

Add your image here

 

Confucianism is a religion that bases its beliefs from the teachings of the philosopher Confucius. His teaching taught people about relationships and how to treat one another (Halsall). If people followed his teachings, then a harmonious society would exist and also a stable government (Halsall). Confucius lived in ancient China and was thought of as a great sage. His teachings described people and why they act the way they do. Confucius taught that people acted badly because they forgot their “stations of life” (Halsall). Also Confucius taught about different kinds of relationships, and how people should act in each relationship. The five relationships that Confucius focused on were ruler and ruled, husband and wife, parents and children, older and younger siblings, and friends (Halsall). In the teachings of Confucius, each person in the relationship needed to treat the other well either with obedience and loyalty, or with kindness and justice (Halsall). The religion of Confucianism was practiced greatly in China over the following year, catching on mostly during the reign of Mencius, and was used during some revolts.

Source:  Halsall, Paul. "The Age of Philosophies”. Chinese Cultural Studies. 2 June 1999. Brooklyn College. 2 January 2008

Edited by: Laura K.

 

 

One of the main teachings of Confucianism was that most of the bad things in society occurred because the people do not remember their positions in society or their life morals.   Confucius' main goal was to create a total social harmony.  He also emphasized the importance that the inferior are respectful and duteous towards the superior.  In addition, filial piety --obedience to parents-- became one of the most significant principles emphasized later.  Confucianism attracted many more people during the time of Mencius, or Meng-tzu from 371-289 BC. He was the second behind Confucius in constructing the basic philosophy of Confucianism. His three major doctrines were related to the basic good nature of human beings, the notion of society with a distinct distribution of functions, and the ruler's obligation to the people (Halsall).

Source: Halsall, Paul. "Chinese Cultural Studies: Philosophy and Religion in China." Chinese Cultural Studies. 2 June 1999. Brooklyn College. 3 January 2008. <http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/shu-ji>.

Edited by: Meghan W.

Who was Confucius?

Confucius was a Chinese philosopher whose ideas formed the beliefs of Confucianism and whose name is known throughout most of China. Confucius was a scholar from the Shangdong Providence in northeastern China. His ideas were taught for more than 2,000 years, during the beginning of the Han Dynasty until the end of the imperial period (Chinese Culture Studies). He spent the last years of his life he wrote his five books, also known as the Five Classics. His beliefs revolved around society, such as relationships between family and friends (Chinese Culture Studies).

Source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/core9/phalsall/texts/chinrelg.html

Edited by: Megan C.

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Shane M.

Add your image here

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Katie T.

Add your image here

What are the Analects?

The Analects are books of conversations between Confucius and his students, who put the set of 20 books, with a total of 499 chapters, together around 2,500 years ago. It gives the basic rules and guidelines that, according to Confucius, everyone should live by. Many people in China today follow these guidelines and it is important to their way of life.  The books follow the beliefs and philosophies of Confucius, which is one of the three main philosophies followed today. His beliefs mostly deal with human interactions and the main goal is to achieve the “perfect self”. Some of the main ideas he focused on were the importance of education in order to know how to be righteous, being content with your life the way it is, being pure, being in a state of relaxation, and more.

Source: Worfel, Keith. "Analects of Confucius." 1998. 3 January 2008 <http://www.wckfc.com/article/ANALECT/analect.htm>.

Edited by: Megan M.

 

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Katelyn I.

 

 

The Analects are a record of words and actions of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. The title literally translates to "discussion over [Confucius'] words" ("Analects.") The Analects were written over a period between 30 to 50 years. Chapters in the Analects are grouped into individual themes but do not follow any specific pattern. Zengzi, a likely author of the Analects, was a very well-known student of Confucius. Marquis Zhang Analects is a version of this book that we know today ("History and versions.") The ideas and philosophies of Confucius greatly influence the moral values of China and some other East Asian countries. For about two thousand years the Analects were the basis of study for Chinese philosophers because a man was not considered morally right if he did not do so. Some people say that the Analects was the first book to describe the life and ideas of an individual ("Influence and signifigance.")

Sources: "Analects." Wikipedia. 22 Dec. 2007. 3 Jan. 2008.       <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analects>. "History and versions." Wikipedia. 22 Dec. 2007. 3 Jan. 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analects>. "Influence and Signifigance." Wikipedia. 22 Dec. 2007. 3 Jan. 2008.      <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analects>.

Edited by: Allison H.

What is the I-Ching? 

The I-Ching, also known as the Book of Changes, is the most ancient Chinese classic text, and is highly regarded in Chinese culture. It is designed to describe the cosmology and philosophy that exists in Chinese culture. I-Ching mainly focuses on the ideas of: the dynamic balance of opposites, the evolution of events as a process, and acceptance of the inevitability of change. Here in the United States, the I-Ching is thought of as a divination system that expresses the wisdom of ancient China. The structure of the I-Ching consists of 64 different line arrangements called hexagrams. Each one is a form of six stacked horizontal lines. The lines can either be Yang, which is a solid line, or Yin, which is a broken line with a space in between. There are 64 possible combinations. There are different ways to cast the hexagrams in order to have a fair probability. Yarrow stalks, biased generators, were used first. However, they were replaced with the three coin method. However, there is no sure way of how to get the optimal probability.

Source:

Edited by: Kim T.

Add your image here

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Caroline K.

Add your image here

 

 

I Chang is one of the Five Classics written by Confucius.   This book is also known as Classic of Changes.  These readings were memorized by scholars of China for years.  The Five Classics and four other books were used to teach Confucianism.  Classic of Poetry, Classic of History, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Record of Rites are included in the Five Classics written by Conficius.  These books were necessary to learn according to the Confucianism belief(Hasall).

Source:  Halsall, Paul.  “The Mandate of Heaven: Selections from the Shu Jing.”  Chinese Cultural Studies.  2 June 1999.  Brooklyn College.  3 January 2008.  <http://acc6.itsbrooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/shu-jing.html>.

Edited by: Nick D.

 

What are the basic beliefs of Taoism?

Daoism , a religion based on comparing yourself to nature. Daoism was first founded by Laozi over 2000 years ago. The religion believes in following the 3 jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility. Wu wei ("non-action"), is a teaching of Daoism also Tao is the natural flow of the universe.

Source:

Edited by: Brendan M.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Ryan B.

Add your image here

 

 

For a Taoist, someone who practices the teachings of Taoism, their goal in life is to "cultivate a mystical relationship to the Tao( Halsall.)’’ Taoists consider the Tao unknowable and unnamed, and talk about the Tao similar to the way Westerners talk about God. Taoists believe in ‘oneness’ and that everything is one; ‘oneness’ is achieved by avoiding knowledge, power, and wealth. Taoists believe that once ‘oneness’ is achieved life is better understood. Taoists also believe that by living ‘saintly’ and ignoring knowledge, power, and wealth, ( which are all considered distractions from life), immortality will be achieved.

Source: Halsall, Paul. "Chinese Cultural Studies: Philosophy and Religion in China ." Chinese Cultural Studies. 2 June 1999 . Brooklyn College . 2 January 2008 . <http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/shu-jing.html>.

Edited by: Nicole S.

 

 

Who is Lao Tzu?

Lao Tsu was a sixth century BC philosopher who came up with the philosophy of Taoism.  Lao Tsu’s birth name was Li Erh and is believed to have a close relation to the Yellow Emperor named Huang-ti.  There are some views that Taoism follows including: “unnatural” action (wei, shaping desires (yu), learning names (ming), being (yu), and non-being (wu).  When you forget names, tastes and desires, the spontaneous behavior (wu-wei) come about.  The people who follow the idea of Taoism care for nothing after death, so they believe they can live above the law. To achieve tranquility with oneself is called Tao, which means “the way” or “the path.”  So the term Tao Te Ching, may be translated to “virtue and its way.”  They also believe that you should not go against the natural forces and the order of things.  “The Taoist has no ambitions, therefore he can never fail.  He who never fails always succeeds. And he who always succeeds is all-powerful.”

Source:   http://www.chebuto.ns.ca/Philosophy/Taichi/lao.html

Edited by: Lizzie G.

 

 

Lao Tzu is believed by some to be the lone author of the “Tao-Te Ching” (also known as the “Lao Tzu”) that was the earliest document in the religious-philosophical tradition of Taoism (Halsall). Very few knew him, and thus, he has become predominantly a legend, possibly living in China as early as 1122-221 BCE, and supposedly working as an astrologer and dabbling in divination for the court emperor (according to an ancient biographer who wrote about Lao Tzu around 100 BCE) (Halsall).  According to another story, he wrote his most famous work while traveling west out of China during the collapse of Chou Dynasty (Halsall). Many scholars today have debunked the theory that Lao Tzu was the only author of the “Tao-Te Ching”, and instead theorize that perhaps the name Lao Tzu refers to a type of scholar or wise man that could be found in ancient times (Halsall). The main reason behind this hypothesis is that some parts of the Tao-Te Ching seem to originate from around the time of Confucius, while other parts obviously came from a later date in history (Halsall). In any case, the “Tao-Te Ching” (meaning “Classic of the Way of Power) that Lao Tzu (the individual or the group) wrote effectively founded Taoism along with its author, and is among the greatest works of Chinese literature not included in the “Confucian Classics” (Halsall) The “Tao-Te Ching” remains a sacred scripture of the Taoist religion, and Lao Tzu, despite the controversy over true identity, still holds legendary status as the author of the significant work that helped shape China by promoting “individuality, freedom, simplicity, mysticism, and naturalness” (Halsall).

Source: Halsall, Paul. "The Age of Philosophies." Chinese Cultural Studies. 2 June 1999. Brooklyn College. 3 January 2008. <http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/shu-jing.html>.

Edited by: Mark W.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Ed D.

Add your image here

What is the Tao Te Ching?

"Tao Te Ching is a Chinese classic text" ("Tao Te Ching"). It was written around 6th century BC,however the true date of composition is still debated.Taoist sage Laozi, who was a record keeper at the Zhou Dynasty court, first wrote Tao Te Ching. Thesewritings have impacted the Taoist School of Chinese Philosophy, and serve an importance to other schools impacting legalism and neo – confusion ("Tao Te Ching"). The Tao Te Ching’s textual history is very long and hard to track back. "On one hand, there are transmitted versions and commentaries that date back two millennia; on the other, there are ancient bamboo, silk, and paper manuscripts that archeologists discovered in the last century" ("Tao Te Ching"). Tao Te Ching is a short text of approximately 5,000 Chinese characters fit into 81 brief sections orchapters. The original written style of this ancient script is laconic, with occasional rhymes, and difficult ideas in poetic terms. "This ancient book is also central in Chinese religion, not only for Taoism, but Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted throughthe use of Taoist words and concepts" ("Tao Te Ching"). Artists in China claim that they use Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration, and the language and text have spread outside East Asia. The one problem with Tao Te Ching, is the translations into the West. For example: there are many possible translations of the book's title, owing two of the component Chinese words:Dào/Tao literally means "way", "road","path", or "route," but was extended to mean "path ahead", "way forward", "method", "principle", "doctrine", or simply "the Way". It becomes a challenge to translate the easiest of terms, a story can become different, and a language can become too complicated.

Source:

Edited by: Lauren D.

 

 

The Tao Te Ching is a classic Chinese text that greatly influenced the Chinese culture and still does today.  Tao Te Ching translates into English as "The Way and Its Power" (Tao Te Ching).  It was written in the 6th century B.C.E. by the Taoist mentor Laozi, "Old Master", a record-keeper at the Zhou Dynasty court (Tao Te Ching).  The Taoist and Chinese Buddhist religions center around the Tao Te Ching (Tao Te Ching).  The Tao Te Ching is the base of the Taoist school of Chinese Philosophy (Tao Te Ching).  Many Chinese artists, poets, painters, calligraphers, and gardeners have used the Tao Te Ching as a source of inspiration (Tao Te Ching).  Tao Te Ching's influence has spread greatly outside of East Asia into Western culture (Tao Te Ching).

Source:   “Tao Te Ching.” Wikipedia. 29 December 2007. 2 January 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching>.

Edited by: Abby D.

 

What are the basic beliefs of Buddhism?

 

One of the main goals and beliefs in Buddhism is to become awakened and discover what is true. Buddhists are supposed to achieve that by following the Four Noble Truths, which are: Suffering is universal Suffering is caused by desire There is an end to suffering Suffering is ended by following the Noble Eightfold Path   The Noble Eightfold Path: Right View Right Intention Right Speech Right Action Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Mindfulness Right Concentration (“Right” can also be translated into “perfect” or “complete”   Buddhists believe in reincarnation, which is a person being reborn after dying. Their next life depends on their karma in their current life. Karma is the belief that your actions will “come back” to. The popular phrase “What goes around comes around” is an example of karma.   A Buddha is a person who has discovered the true nature of reality and achieved nirvana. The true nature of reality can be attained by following the Four Noble Truths.  Once someone achieves nirvana, they no longer feel greed and hate. A Buddha is awakened and enlightened, and spends the remainder of his or her life teaching others.

Source: www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism

Edited by: James T.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Alison M.

Add your image here

 

 

With 376 million followers, Buddhism is one of the more major religions. Buddhists do not believe in a personal god. They believe in karma, which is that your actions have consequences and will determine how you will be reincarnated. Dharma, the moral standards of living, is another belief. The ultimate goal is to reach Enlightenment which is the state of being which goes beyond suffering. After nirvana is reached, there is the belief of rebirth (consciousness will continue after death and find expression in a future life). Finally they have four noble truths: 1.      Suffering is the universal 2.      Suffering is caused by desire 3.      You must eliminate suffering to reach nirvana 4.        Follow the eightfold path

Source:   Sears, Kelly. “Buddhism.” World Cultures. Haverford High School. 12/16/07.

Edited by: Caitlin L.

Politics:

What was the National Party?

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Caroline P.

Add your image here

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Kayvan H.

Add your image here

What is the history of the Communist Party in China?

The Communist Party of China, also called CPC, was created on July 23, 1921, but the party’s inauguration date is July 1, 1941 (Xia).  The CPC is based on the ideas of Marxism, the idea of changing from a emperor ruled party to a Communist one began after World War I.  During the Paris talks in 1918, China did not receive the status as one of the victorious countries, even though they were apart of the Western allies (Xia).  This was a huge blow to China and its people.  In 1919, the May Fourth Movement occurred, it was a cultural, patriotic, and political movement in which students and workers joined together to criticize the way the Chinese government was being run (Xia).  In 1917, the October Revolution in Russia took place, ending the Tsarist regime and establishing a workers’ and farmers’ soviet government (Xia).  China took notice and it was another push towards the creation of the CPC.  IN 1921, the first CPC National Congress came together in Shanghai to talk about the creation of the party.  The CPC has since been ruled by Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping, and Jiang Zemin.

Source:  Xia, Li. "The 80 Year Course of a Political Party."  China Today. July 2001: pp. 10-15. SIRS. Haverford High School Library, Havertown Pa. 2 Jan 2008. <http://sks.sirs.com/>.

Edited by: Casey F.

 

What happened to China during WWII?

Mao Zedong was a leader of China before World War II and became the leader of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 until he died in 1976. He led the Communist Chinese Army in World War II to fight against the Japanese invasion. Eventually a rift formed between the National and Communist Forces (the Red Army). The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor which was to mainly gain control of Changsha, a city in China. After the Japanese tried to overtake the city, the war between the two countries became a stalemate. In 1944, Japan made a major attack even though both sides suffered high causalities and were weak. The Japanese tried to clear all American airfields and in doing so it opened a railway route Peking to Nanking.

Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ww2#China

Edited by: Alexis M.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Melissa B.

Add your image here

 

 

In 1911, the dynasty in China collapsed and a civil was started. The Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) were in a power struggle over who would rule China (WikiAnswers). Then Japan invaded China in 1937, which lead to China’s part in WWII. China entered WWII on the allied side to rebel against Japan and to help keep Japan from gaining power by taking over their land. In the end it didn’t help because Japan withdrew its troops from China and helped fight the US in the Pacific.

Source: WikiAnswers. Answers Corporation. 3 January 2008. <http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_was_China_involved_in_World_War_2>.

Edited by: Zack B.

 

Who is Mao Zedong?

 Added by Ms. Ward

Mao Zedong (1893-1976) was and still is a political figure held in high honor today as a communist leader and chairman of a republic in China. Mao Zedong was born in the village of Shaoshan. He was the eldest child in a peasant family. At the age of 13, after only five years of education, his father removed him from school to work in the fields. After fleeing the country to avoid working on the family farm, his uncle helped admit him into primary school. By the time Mao was seventeen, he began middle school and improved excessively in reading. Eventually, after few years of fighting in war, he decided to become a teacher and attend the First Provincial Normal School. There, he succeeded in serving apprenticeship as a politician, improving his writing, and graduating the five vital years of his education. After completing provincial school, Mao worked as an assistant in the library at Peking University. Through his work was introduced to communist theories and developed his own ideas about politics in China. He attended his first session of the National Congress of the Communist Party in China in 1921 at the age of 27. In 1923, he was elected one of five commissars of the Central Committee of the Communist party and became the secretary of the Hunan branch of the Chinese Communist Party. In 1927, he conducted an uprising as commander-in-chief in Hunan. From 1931-1934 Mao Zedong helped establish the Soviet Republic of China and was elected Chairman of the Republic.

Source:  "Mao Zedong (1893-1976)" Asia Biography. 3 Jan. 2008. http://www.asiasource.org/society/mao.cfm.  "Mao Zedong." Wikipedia. 3 Jan. 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong.

Edited by: Caroline E.

 

 

Cut and paste your paragraph here

Source:

Edited by: Zak H.

Add your image here

 

 

Mao Zedong (or Mao Tse-Tung) was on of the most influential political leaders in Chinese history. Mao admired Russian/communists ideas, and became a Marxist before serving in the revolutionary army in the Chinese revolution. He helped to found the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921, and decided to use the positions formally taken by Lenin and Marx, and adapted them for his cause. In 1928, the CCP formed the Red Army, with Mao overseeing its production. He was appointed Chairman of the newly-formed Soviet Republic of China in 1931, and after the “long march” that he led his Red Army on four years later, he was noted as the most important of the communist leaders. After the war with Japan, Mao was elected Government Chairman of the People’s Republic of China. In 1958, he launched his agricultural experiment to help better China’s economy, called the “Great Leap Forward”, but instead caused the deaths of 20 to 30 million people (Infoplease.com) due to the ensuing famine following the failed trial.

Source:  Infoplease.com. 2007. RSS. 3 Jan 2008 <http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/>.

Edited by: Sam P.

 

What was the Great Leap Forward?

The Great Leap Forward was created to accomplish economic and technical development for the country in a quick way. Great results were expected in less time. Mao wanted to build a more responsive political system. New xiafang movement sent many to mines, factories, and public work projects to witness labor first hand. Mao redistributed the land in the country to make it equal. The Great Leap Forward was an economic failure. There were also shortages of food, shortages of raw materials, overproduction of low-quality goods, and weariness of intellectuals. Mao stepped down from his chairman position of the People’s Republic and took the blame for this disaster.

Source: http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/prc2.html#greatleap

Edited by: Cory W.

 

 

In 1958, Mao Zedong began what he called “The Great Leap Forward” so that China would have an economy to rival the United States by 1988.  The Great Leap Forward’s aim was to develop agriculture and industry.  Mao believed that both agriculture and industry needed to grow together in order for both to grow at all.  Industry could thrive only if the workers were well fed while agriculture could only grow if they had the right tools for the job.  China was transformed into a series of communes.             Most communes contained about 5000 families.  Everything in the commune was the property of the commune itself, the people did not own anything themselves.  The commune controlled almost all aspects of a person’s life.  So that all adults would be able to work, communes provided schools and nurseries.  The elderly were moved into “happiness homes” so they could be taken care of.  “By the end of 1958, 700 million people had been placed into 26,578 communes.”  In an attempt to keep the residents enthused, propaganda was placed all over the communes.             In 1959, things started to go awry.  Communes faced the task of doing things they were incapable of doing.  If a commune leader told a party official the assigned task was impossible, he would be branded a “bourgeoisie reactionary.”  Many workers were taken away from the fields in order to make steel.  China was not able to grow enough food and subsequently, many areas starved.  The failure of the Great Leap Forward proved the end of Mao Zedong being the Head of State (although he still held the powerful Party Chairman position).

Source:  “The Great Leap Forward.” History Learning Site. 2007. Jan 3 2008             <http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/great_leap_forward.htm>.

Edited by: Sean-Erik O.

Add your image here

 

What was Mao's philosophy of Guardianship and Hierarchy (based on Lenin)?

The philosophy of Guardianship, originally put forth by Lenin and adopted by Mao, states basically that a proletariat social revolution is inherently inclined to start off with democratic actions, but the lure of the comforts of the bourgeoisie will eventually be strong enough to pollute their ideologies (Lievesley). In order to keep them focused on the common good of everybody, the people must be protected by a group of full-time professional revolutionaries, the Communist Party (Lievesley). This revolutionary governing body is then governed by the philosophy of Hierarchy. This is the theory of “democratic centralism.” Major decisions are debated within the party, but once a decision is made, party members are expected to support the decision fully when in public (Lievesley).

Source: Lievesley , Geraldine. "Leninism." Answers.com. 3 Jan 2008. <http://www.answers.com/topic/leninism>.

Edited by: Alex V.